
Mars is one of the most interesting and mysterious planets in the Solar System. It attracts the attention of scientists, writers, artists, and ordinary people with its features and the possibility of colonization.
In this article, we will tell you everything about the exploration of Mars: from its position in the Solar System to its geology and atmosphere. Learn about the physical characteristics, orbit, climate, surface, and moons of the Red Planet.
The Position of Mars in the Solar System
What does Mars look like?
Mars is a terrestrial planet, meaning it has a solid surface and a thin atmosphere. It has two small moons, Phobos and Deimos, which resemble asteroids. Mars has a bright orange or reddish color due to the high content of iron oxide (rust) in its soil, which is why it is called the "Red Planet". The surface of Mars features many craters, dunes, hills, valleys, volcanoes, and canyons.
Where is Mars located?
Mars is located in the Solar System, which consists of eight planets, their moons, asteroids, comets, and other celestial bodies that orbit the Sun. Mars is the fourth planet from the Sun in terms of distance and the second planet from Earth in terms of distance.
Mars moves in an elliptical orbit around the Sun, which has a wide range of distances between perihelion (the closest point to the Sun) and aphelion (the farthest point from the Sun).
Mars: the fourth planet from the Sun
Mars is the fourth planet from the Sun in terms of distance and has an average distance from it of about 228 million kilometers. This is about 1.5 times the distance from Earth to the Sun, which is about 150 million kilometers.
Due to the great distance from the Sun, Mars receives four times less solar energy than Earth and has a lower surface temperature.
The distance from Mars to the Sun and Earth
The distance from Mars to the Sun and Earth is not constant but changes depending on the positions of the planets in their orbits. The minimum distance from Mars to the Sun is reached during perihelion and is about 207 million km. The maximum distance from Mars to the Sun is reached during aphelion and is about 249 million km.
The minimum distance from Mars to Earth is reached during opposition when Mars and Earth are on the same side of the Sun, and is about 56 million km. The maximum distance from Mars to Earth is reached during conjunction when Mars and Earth are on opposite sides of the Sun, and is about 401 million km.

Physical Characteristics of Mars
The diameter of Mars
The diameter of Mars is about 6,792 km (4,220 miles), which is about half the diameter of Earth, which is about 12,756 km (7,926 miles).
The radius of Mars
The radius of the Red Planet is about 3,396 km, which is about half the radius of Earth, which is about 6,378 km.
The surface area of Mars
The surface area of Mars is about 144 million km², which is roughly equal to the land area on Earth, which is about 149 million km².
The volume of Mars
The volume of the planet is approximately 163 billion cubic kilometers, which is about seven times less than the volume of Earth, which is approximately 1,083 billion cubic kilometers.
The mass of Mars
The total mass of Mars is about 642 billion tons, which is about ten times less than the mass of Earth, which is about 5,972 billion tons.
The density of Mars
The density of the planet Mars is about 3.93 g/cm³, which is about 1.3 times less than the density of Earth, which is about 5.51 g/cm³.
The age of Mars
Mars has existed for about 4.6 billion years, which is roughly the same age as Earth, which also formed about 4.6 billion years ago.

Comparison of the sizes of Earth (average radius 6,371 km) and Mars (average radius 3,390 km) | wikimedia.org
Orbit and Rotation Period of Mars
Martian day and its duration
Mars rotates around its axis and around the Sun. The time it takes Mars to make one complete rotation on its axis is called a Martian day or sol. It is about 24 hours 39 minutes, which is roughly 40 minutes longer than an Earth day.
Martian year and its duration
The time it takes Mars to make one complete orbit around the Sun is called a Martian year. It is about 687 Earth days, which is about 1.9 times longer than an Earth year.
Seasons on Mars
Due to the different duration of the day and year on Mars, the seasons here also differ from those on Earth. Mars has four seasons: spring, summer, autumn, and winter. However, due to the ellipticity of the orbit of the Red Planet, the duration of the seasons here is not uniform.
In the northern hemisphere of Mars, spring lasts 194 sols, summer — 178 sols, autumn — 142 sols, and winter — 154 sols.
In the southern hemisphere of Mars, spring lasts 142 sols, summer — 154 sols, autumn — 194 sols, and winter — 178 sols.
Thus, in the southern hemisphere of Mars, the seasons are more extreme than in the northern hemisphere. This is because during the southern summer, Mars is closer to the Sun, and during the southern winter, it is farther from the Sun than during the northern summer and winter.

The orbit of Mars and other planets of our Solar System | wikipedia.org
Atmosphere and Climate on Mars
Composition of the atmosphere of Mars
Mars has a very thin atmosphere, which consists mainly of carbon dioxide (95.32%), as well as nitrogen (2.7%), argon (1.6%), oxygen (0.13%), water vapor (0.03%), and other gases.
The atmospheric pressure on Mars averages about 6 millibars, which is about 160 times less than the atmospheric pressure on Earth, which is about 1,013 millibars.
Due to the low atmospheric pressure on Mars, water cannot exist in a liquid state on the planet's surface and immediately transitions from a solid state (ice) to a gaseous state (vapor).
Temperature on Mars and temperature range
The temperature on Mars greatly depends on the time of day, season, latitude, and altitude. On average, the temperature on Mars is about -63 °C, which is about five times lower than the average temperature on Earth, which is about 15 °C. However, the temperature on Mars can vary widely from -143 °C to 35 °C.
The lowest temperatures on Mars are observed during winter at the poles, where the temperature can drop to -143 °C. The highest temperatures on Mars are observed during summer at the equator, where the temperature can rise to 35 °C. Also, the temperature on Mars can vary greatly during the day. For example, at the equator, the temperature can be around 20 °C during the day and around -73 °C at night.
Weather on Mars
The weather on the Red Planet is determined by the movement of the atmosphere, which is influenced by solar radiation, the planet's rotation, surface irregularities, and seasonal changes. Various weather phenomena can be observed here, such as clouds, fog, wind, dust storms, snow, and frost.
Clouds on Mars consist of crystals of water ice or carbon dioxide and form in the upper layers of the atmosphere. Fog forms in the lower layers of the atmosphere due to the condensation of water vapor and can cover valleys and craters.
Wind on Mars arises due to the temperature and pressure differences between different regions of the planet and can reach speeds of up to 100 m/s.
Dust storms on this planet are the most powerful and large-scale in the Solar System. They can obscure the Sun, lift dust to a height of up to 60 km, and cover the entire planet. Dust storms on Mars are more frequent during spring and summer in the southern hemisphere when the planet is closer to the Sun.
Snow and frost on Mars form due to the freezing of water vapor or carbon dioxide in the atmosphere and settle on the planet's surface. Snow and frost are more commonly observed during winter at the poles, where the temperature is low enough for ice formation.
Climate on Mars
The climate on Mars depends on many factors, such as the distance from the Sun, the tilt of the axis of rotation, the albedo of the surface, the composition of the atmosphere, and geological activity.
The climate here can change over geological epochs due to changes in the planet's orbit, oscillations in the tilt of the axis, volcanism, asteroid impacts, and other processes. On Mars, three main climate zones can be distinguished: polar, temperate, and tropical.
The polar zone is located at latitudes above 60° and is characterized by low temperatures, high pressure, low humidity, little precipitation, and weak winds.
The temperate zone is located at latitudes from 30° to 60° and is characterized by moderate temperatures, average pressure, average humidity, moderate precipitation, and moderate winds.
The tropical zone is located at latitudes below 30° and is characterized by high temperatures, low pressure, high humidity, heavy precipitation, and strong winds.
Animation showing the main features of Mars
The Surface of Mars
The surface of Mars and its features
The surface of Mars is a diverse and complex landscape that has been shaped by various geological processes such as volcanism, tectonics, erosion, asteroid impacts, and glaciation.
The surface of the Red Planet has two main types: old surfaces and young surfaces.
Old surfaces on Mars have a large number of craters, which indicate the age and low geological activity of these regions.
Young surfaces on Mars have fewer craters, indicating higher geological activity in these regions. Young surfaces are also more diverse in relief and composition. They feature volcanoes, canyons, and valleys.
Volcanoes on Mars
Mars has the largest and most numerous volcanoes in the Solar System. They formed due to the uplift and melting of the mantle beneath the planet's crust.
Volcanoes on Mars vary in shape, size, and age. The most famous of them are Olympus, Arsia, Pavonis, and Ascraeus, which form the Tharsis plateau on the planet's equator. They are shield volcanoes, meaning they have a broad and flat shape.
Olympus Mons is the tallest volcano in the Solar System, with a height of 21.9 km above sea level and a diameter of 600 km.
Other volcanoes on Mars include Elysium, Albor, and Apollinaris, which are located in the northern and southern hemispheres of the planet. These volcanoes have heights ranging from 4 to 8 km and diameters from 100 to 200 km. They are cone-shaped volcanoes, meaning they have a narrow and tall shape.

The largest volcano on Mars, Olympus Mons. Its diameter is about 550 km (340 miles) | wikipedia.org
Canyons
Mars has the deepest and longest canyons in the Solar System. They formed due to faults and erosion of the planet's crust.
The canyons on Mars vary in shape, size, and age. The most famous of them is Valles Marineris, located on the planet's equator. This canyon is about 4,500 km long, up to 7 km deep, and from 2 to 120 km wide. It is the largest canyon in the Solar System and even surpasses the Grand Canyon on Earth in size.
Other canyons on Mars include Noctis Labyrinthus, Valles Marineris, Candor Chasma, Ophir Chasma, and others that form a system of canyons in the west of the planet. They are complex and winding canyons with many branches and intersections.

The canyon system of Valles Marineris on Mars | wikimedia.org
Valleys
Mars has many valleys that formed due to tectonic, volcanic, erosional, and glacial processes. They also vary in shape, size, and age.
The most famous valleys on Mars are river valleys, located in the southern hemisphere of the planet. These valleys are up to 1,000 km long, up to 10 km wide, and up to 100 m deep. They provide evidence that rivers once flowed on Mars, carrying water and sediments.
Other valleys on Mars are wind valleys, located in the northern hemisphere of the planet. These valleys are up to 100 km long, up to 100 m wide, and up to 10 m deep. They result from wind blowing dust and sand out of low areas, leaving narrow and deep trenches.
Another type of valleys on Mars is ice valleys, located at the planet's poles. These valleys range from 10 to 100 km in length, 10 to 100 km in width, and 10 to 100 m in depth. They result from ice moving across the planet's surface and carving grooves and depressions.
Surface composition (soil) of Mars
The soil on Mars is a mixture of minerals, dust, sand, gravel, and rocks that formed due to the weathering of the planet's crust. This soil varies in composition depending on the region, depth, and history.
The most common element in Martian soil is oxygen, which accounts for about 45% by weight. Other commonly found elements in the soil include iron (about 20%), silicon (about 15%), magnesium (about 7%), aluminum (about 6%), calcium (about 4%), sulfur (about 2%), and others.
Due to the high content of iron oxide (rust), Martian soil has a reddish or brownish color.
The most common minerals here are silicates, oxides, sulfates, carbonates, phosphates, and halides.
An interesting fact is that traces of organic substances have been found in the soil of this planet, which may be a sign of life in the past or present.
The soil on Mars varies in density, porosity, moisture, and temperature depending on the region, depth, and season.
Martian craters
Craters on Mars are depressions in the planet's surface that formed as a result of impacts from asteroids, comets, and other celestial bodies. Craters on Mars vary in size, shape, depth, age, and condition.
The largest craters have diameters ranging from 100 to 1,000 km and depths from 10 to 100 km. These are the oldest craters on Mars, dating back about 4 billion years.
The smallest craters have diameters ranging from 1 to 10 m and depths from 0.1 to 1 m. They are the youngest craters, dating back from several years to several million years ago.

Korolev crater, containing 2,200 cubic kilometers of ice | wikimedia.org
Martian dunes and hills
Dunes and hills on Mars formed due to the movement and accumulation of dust, sand, gravel, and rocks under the influence of wind, water, or ice. They vary in size, shape, height, color, and location.
The largest dunes and hills on Mars range in size from 10 to 100 km, shape from linear to star-shaped, height from 10 to 100 m, color from red to black. They are the youngest and most dynamic landforms on Mars and constantly change under the influence of wind.
The smallest dunes and hills, with heights and diameters not exceeding 10 m, have a dome-shaped or hummocky form, color from yellow to white. They are the oldest and most stable landforms on Mars and rarely change under the influence of wind.
Natural resources of Mars
Natural resources on Mars are natural materials and energy that can be used for various purposes, such as scientific research, colonization, extraction, or tourism. The most important natural resources here are water, metals, and energy.
Water
Water on Mars is a vital resource for any form of life, as well as for scientific, colonization, and tourism purposes. Water here exists in three states: solid, liquid, and gaseous.
Solid water on Mars is found as ice at the poles, beneath the surface, and in meteorites. Liquid water is found as underground rivers, lakes, and aquifers. Gaseous water is found as water vapor in the atmosphere.
The amount of water on the Red Planet is estimated at 20-30 million cubic kilometers, which is about 50 times less than the amount of water on Earth, which is about 1,400 million cubic kilometers.
Martian water may also be necessary to support human life on Mars in the future. It is the subject of active study and search using various missions and tools.
Metals
Metals on Mars are valuable resources for various purposes, such as construction, manufacturing, energy, communication, transportation, and trade. They exist in the form of elements, alloys, ores, or meteorites.
The most common metals on Mars are iron, aluminum, magnesium, nickel, copper, zinc, lead, gold, and platinum. Their amount is estimated at several billion tons, which is about 100 times less than the amount of metals on Earth, which is about 800 billion tons.
Energy
Energy is a necessary resource for any activity, such as lighting, heating, cooling, movement, processing, transmission, and storage of information. Energy on Mars exists in the form of solar, wind, geothermal, nuclear, or chemical energy.
The amount of energy on Mars is estimated at several trillion kilowatt-hours. On Earth, the amount of energy is about 1,000 times greater than on Mars.
Geological processes on Mars
Geological processes on Mars depend on many factors, such as temperature, pressure, humidity, gravity, solar radiation, magnetic field, internal structure, and planetary activity. Below we will consider the most important of them.
Volcanism
Volcanism on Mars was active in the past, but it is almost extinct now. Volcanism here was responsible for creating the largest volcanoes in the Solar System, such as Olympus, Arsia, Pavonis, and Ascraeus, as well as for forming the Tharsis plateau, Elysium plateau, and other highlands.
Volcanism on Mars influenced the composition and temperature of the atmosphere, the distribution of water and ice, and the chemical and mineral composition of the surface.
Tectonics
Tectonics is the process by which the planet's crust breaks into plates that move relative to each other under the influence of forces arising in the planet's mantle. Tectonics on Mars was also active in the past, but it has almost stopped now.
As a result of this process, the deepest and longest canyons in the Solar System, such as Valles Marineris, Noctis Labyrinthus, and others, were formed here, as well as ridges, grabens, folds, faults, and other structures.
Erosion
Erosion is the process by which the planet's surface is destroyed and moved under the influence of wind, water, ice, gravity, impacts, and other factors. Erosion on Mars was active in the past and continues to be active in the present.
As a result of erosion, the oldest and youngest landforms on the planet were formed, such as river valleys, wind valleys, ice valleys, craters, dunes, and hills.

Panorama of the surface of Mars in Jezero Crater, taken by the Perseverance rover | wikimedia.org
The core of Mars
The core of Mars consists of iron, nickel, and other heavy elements. It has a radius of about 1,800 km, a mass of about 15% of the planet's mass, and a temperature of about 1,500 °C.
The core of Mars is divided into two layers: the outer core and the inner core. The outer core is a liquid layer that rotates around the inner core and creates the planet's geomagnetic field. The inner core is a solid layer consisting of crystals of iron and nickel.
The core of Mars affects the temperature, pressure, density, and composition of the mantle and crust of the planet, the geomagnetic field, and the possibility of life on the planet.
The magnetic field of Mars
The magnetic field of Mars is a force that arises due to the movement of electrically charged particles in the core, mantle, crust, and atmosphere of the planet. The magnetic field of Mars has a complex and unstable structure consisting of global and local fields.
The global magnetic field is a weak and irregular field formed due to the residual magnetization of the planet's crust. The local magnetic field is a strong and fragmented field formed due to the turbulence of ionized gas in the planet's atmosphere.
The magnetic field of Mars affects the distribution and movement of charged particles in space, the protection of the planet from the solar wind and cosmic rays, the formation of the magnetosphere and auroras, the climate and weather, geochemistry and geobiology, and the possibility of life on the planet.
Gravity on Mars
Gravity on Mars is the force that attracts all bodies to the center of the planet. Gravity depends on the mass and radius of the planet, as well as the distance to its surface. Gravity on Mars is about 38% of gravity on Earth, or about 3.7 m/s².
Gravity affects the weight and movement of bodies on the planet, the shape and size of the planet, the orbits and periods of the satellites, the tides, the atmospheric pressure and temperature, the geology and geodesy, the biology and physiology.
Earthquakes on Mars
Earthquakes on Mars were rare and weak in the past but have become more frequent and stronger in the present. They are caused by various reasons, such as tectonic processes, volcanic activity, asteroid impacts, thermal stresses, phase transitions of water and ice, gravitational interactions with the Sun and moons.
Earthquakes on Mars are measured by the magnitude scale, which determines the energy released during the earthquake. The strongest earthquake on Mars that has been recorded had a magnitude of about 4.5, which corresponds to a medium earthquake on Earth.
Moons of Mars
The moons of Mars are called Phobos and Deimos. They were discovered in 1877 by American astronomer Asaph Hall.
Phobos and Deimos have irregular shapes and small sizes, composed of porous rock material covered with a thick layer of dust and gravel. Both moons rotate around their axis and around Mars at the same speed, so they are always facing the planet on one side.
Phobos Moon
Phobos is the closest moon to Mars, located about 6,000 km from the planet's center. Phobos has a diameter of about 22 km, and a mass of about 10 billion tons.
Phobos has an irregular shape that resembles a potato. It has many craters, the largest of which is called Stickney. It also has several grooves that may be traces of impacts or stresses in the crust.
The Phobos moon makes one orbit around Mars in 7 hours 39 minutes, which is less than a Martian day. Because of this, Phobos moves across the sky faster than the Sun and can set and rise twice a day.
Phobos is gradually approaching Mars due to the planet's gravitational pull, and in a few million years, it will either break up into a ring or fall to the surface of Mars.
Deimos Moon
Deimos is the farthest moon from Mars, located about 23,000 km from the planet's center. It has a diameter of about 12 km, and a mass of about 2 billion tons.
Deimos has an irregular shape that resembles a triangle. It has fewer craters than Phobos, the largest of which is called Swift.
The Deimos moon makes one orbit around Mars in 30 hours 18 minutes, which is longer than a Martian day. Because of this, Deimos moves across the sky more slowly than the Sun and can set and rise once every two days.
Deimos is gradually moving away from Mars due to the planet's gravitational pull, and in a few billion years, it may leave its orbit and become a free asteroid.

Moons of Mars: Phobos and Deimos | wikimedia.org
Conclusion
Mars is an amazing and unique planet that has much in common with Earth, but also many differences from it. Mars has many interesting and mysterious features, such as its red color, two moons, four seasons, the largest volcanoes and canyons, a thin atmosphere, dust storms, icy polar caps, ancient river valleys, natural resources, and geological processes.
Mars is the object of scientific interest and research, as it can provide answers to many questions about the origin and evolution of the Solar System, the possibility of life on other planets, and the prospects of colonization and tourism on Mars.
Mars is a planet that deserves attention and study, as it can open new horizons and opportunities for us.
Mars has intrigued humanity for millennia: from its blood-red color to the potential for supporting life. In the following video, you will learn how the Red Planet formed from gas and dust and the significance of its polar ice caps for life as we know it.
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